History & philosophy – a summary
Yoga may be traced back to the pictorial art of the 3rd millennium BCE Indus Valley civilization. This was a highly developed civilization that preceded the Vedas and is linked to population changes of the 2nd half of the 2nd millennium BCE and the Indo-Aryan migration into the Indian peninsula. Veda means ‘knowledge, wisdom’ and Vedas form the sacred writings of Hinduism, believed to have always existed but they were actually apprehended by sages in deep meditative state some time prior to 1500 BCE. They represent the oldest Sanskrit scripts and most are believed to have been composed between 1500BCE and 300 BCE. In effect, they are a large body of ‘sacred’ texts comprising of hymns, chants, comments on liturgy and ritual, mystical exegeses (interpretations), guidance on everyday procedures (e.g. weddings) as well as discussions on philosophical matters. There are 4 Vedas: Rig veda, Yajur veda, Sama veda and Atharva veda and they all include 4 kinds of texts: Samhitas (mandras and benedictions), Brahmanas (commentaries on Vedic hymns, instructions and explanations of rituals and ceremonies), Aranyakas (mythical, symbolic & philosophical aspects of rituals), and the Upanisads (texts in the form of dialogues discussing meditation, philosophy & spirituality, 7th century BCE – 1500 CE). The Upanishads form the core of the Hindu philosophy shared among Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, but many concepts are also shared by Christian thought, as well as by the ancient Greek and western European philosophical thought (e.g. Pythagoras and Schopenhauer). They are represented mainly in Vedanta philosophy, the last and most influential of the 6 schools of Hindu philosophy or Darshanas (ways to look at things).
The 6 Darshanas are:
- Nyayapromotes logic procedures and dialectics to uncover the truth. It states that only correct knowledge frees man from the suffering of his delusions and leads to understanding the true nature of soul, self, and reality. This is humanly feasible through 4 pramanas (means of gaining knowledge): perception, inference, comparison and analogy, as well as testimony of reliable sources. Nyaya sutras (a most influential collection of texts) dates from the 6th century BCE – 2nd CE. The associations with the dialectics approach developed by Socrates in the 5th century BCE Athens as well as with the modern Western philosophical and scientific thought is noticeable.
- Vaisheshika(6th BCE-2nd CE) accepts as useful means of inquiry only perception and inference and holds the belief that a complete understanding of the world of experience leads to knowledge and liberation. It is a first form of empiricism, the school of thought that governs science today. It uses logic to differentiate between things based on the difference of their characteristics and believes in naturalism and atomism in natural philosophy. However, it accepts the unquestionable value of the Vedas.
- Samkhyaschool of philosophy is dualist and believes that the universe consists of Purusha (the soul, spirit and cosmic consciousness that remains unchangeable) and Prakrti (energy in the form of matter, which constantly changes). It relies on reason and accepts the 3 main pramanas of perception, inference, and the use of reliable sources. According to Samkya, Purusha and Prakrti may be fused and thus create buddhi (intellect) and ahankara (ego), seen in jivas (living beings). The bondage between different elements such as the senses and the mind, create imbalance. Liberation is the end of this bondage. Samkhya pursues knowledge through the analysis of an object from surface to essence and sees the Gunas (innate qualities or tendencies) as of 3 types. Sattva is pureness, goodness, positivity, illumination. Rajas is activity, chaos, passion that may be good or bad. Tamas is darkness, lethargy and negativity.
- Yoga shares much of its epistemology with Samkhya and many central ideas with Advaita Vedanta. It is however, a form of empirical mysticism, having developed physical, mental and spiritual practices that aim at discovering and liberating oneself. The theoretical framework and practical guidance of Raja (royal) yoga is encapsulated in the yoga sutras attributed to sage Pantajali probably c. 200CE or sometime between c. 100BCE – c.500CE).
- Karma mimamsainvestigates the nature of actions and dharma. Dharma is understood as cosmic law, but also social rules and the right way of living that make life and the universe possible. It is based on the first Vedas accepting the eternal nature of the soul and includes ritual practices.
- Vedanta (Veda=knowledge, Anta=end) means ‘the apogee of a process of knowledge’ and is considered to be the culmination of Vedic wisdom, based mainly on the Upanishads. It completes Samkhya and Yoga darshanas and emphasizes the study of knowledge and spirituality. Vedanta is an umbrella term for all sub-traditions springing from the principle Upanisads, the Brahma Sutras(a systematic summary of the philosophy in the Upanisads written between 400 BCE – 200 CE) and the Bhagavad-Gita (an epic text based on the yogic philosophy). Having adopted ideas from the other darshanas it has held a historically central role.
In Vedanta philosophy there are 4 main paths which may lead to the ultimate experience of the union of personal and cosmic consciousness (Samanthi).
- Jnana yoga: the path of philosophy where the seeker learns to discriminate between the real and the unreal (also in ancient Greek philosophy).
- Karma yoga: the path of selfless service when one is totally freed from the ego.
- Bhakti yoga: the path of love and devotion to God through the practice of rituals.
- Raja yoga: the yoga of science where one learns to bring his body and mind, his actions and thoughts, under control. Raja yoga is also called Asthanga yoga, the path of 8 limbs towards Samanthi, the ultimate aim of yoga.
The Yogic philosophy is based on the same ethical principles and life values as most religious and humanitarian philosophies.